Sediments in ports, marinas and waterways around the world are often contaminated with metals arising from anthropogenic activities. Regular dredging is needed to achieve an appropriate water depth and reduce the environmental impact of pollutants. The aim of this study was to develop an integrated assessment method for comparing various management strategies for dredged sediments at six case study sites in Sweden. Short- and long-term environmental impacts were investigated for different management approaches, including landfilling, deep-sea disposal, metal extraction in combination with the two aforementioned, and natural recovery (no dredging). The potential value of metals in the sediments was estimated using sediment metal contents and current metal prices. Additionally, an assessment of how metal extraction could result in lower management costs was carried out. The cost of the different management approaches was calculated and evaluated together with the corresponding environmental impacts. This study shows that there is a monetary value in dredged materials, in terms of metal content, and that the materials can potentially be used for metal extraction. Metal extraction may also help to reduce the management costs, as cleaner materials are cheaper to handle. The choice of metal recovery method is important in both monetary and environmental terms, potentially contributing to a circular economy. In the future, metal recovery may become more profitable, as technologies are improved, and due to probable increases in metal prices and landfill costs.

The use of maritime transport is associated with external costs such as those related to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. If corrective taxes, fees or regulations are levied on the production of maritime transport services, these costs become internal and decision-makers will take into account the full social cost of transport. Shipping is subject to less incentive-based regulation than e.g. road transport, but Sweden represents a relatively unique regulatory case with its national system of fairway dues, which are differentiated according the environmental performance of ships. The central question posed in this paper is whether Sweden's internalizing national transport policy measures are in proportion to the societal costs generated by maritime traffic in Swedish waters. Using a dataset comprising all vessel movements in Swedish territorial waters during a year, we estimate the marginal external and infrastructure costs of maritime traffic and find that, depending on the set of unit values applied, the degree of internalization ranges between around 53% and 90%. We also evaluate the effects of a recent re-appraisal of CO2 in the Swedish official guidelines for cost benefit analysis and show that under the new recommendation the degree of internalization is significantly lower: 23–28%. Because the degree of internalization varies significantly between different shipping segments, a uniform increase of the charges currently in place is not recommended. Instead, we highlight that other, more appropriate instruments for internalization may be needed. © 2020 The Authors

The extent of competition between maritime freight transport and land-based modes of freight transport is studied using different methods. Previous elasticity calculations with the Swedish national freight transport model Samgods are updated. The elasticity calculations made with the latest model version indicate slightly lower elasticities for shipping compared to the elasticities that were calculated earlier.

The elasticity estimates from an econometric approach using data from the Swedish commodity flow survey from 2016 indicates somewhat higher own-price elasticities.

A systematic review of studies which estimate own-price, cross-price or time elasticities of demand for maritime transport shows that this report’s modelled elasticities are on low in comparison to the international literature. The evaluation of how much freight could potentially be shifted focuses primarily on shifting volumes from road to sea. Decomposing the growth in freight transport work over the past years using a shift-share analysis technique shows that maritime transport lost market shares, primarily to road transport.

Shipping can be regarded as a high-risk domain with a large complexity in operations. Accidents and incidents may involve serious danger for seafarers and passengers, as well as for the environment and society at large. Education and training play a crucial role for the safe conduct of ships. While technical skills have been at the core of a mariner’s skillset, non-technical skills (NTS) have become increasingly important for the safe conduct of merchant vessels. Therefore, knowledge in NTS has become a mandatory requirement for officers serving on board. This knowledge is normally taught in courses labelled Bridge Resource Management, Engine room Resource Management, or Maritime Resource Management. While the number of courses in the industry is steadily increasing, research focused on NTS training and its relation to safety in operation seems sparse. This review article aims to provide an overview of scientific literature focused on training NTS for maritime operations published between 2000 and 2018. Based on the reviewed literature the article identifies and discusses current research gaps, trends and potential future directions to improve maritime resource management training.

This study presents a survey that has been conducted as part of a larger research project focused on crew resource management in the maritime domain. As research focused on this type of training is currently limited, the Ship Management Attitude Questionnaire (SMAQ) developed by a Swedish marine insurance company, has been adopted to explore NTS knowledge of fourth year students in a maritime education program. Thirty-one students within the maritime academy’s Nautical Science (n = 21) and Marine Engineering (n = 10) programs participated in the survey. The age of the participants ranged between 22 and 46 years (M = 26.6, SD = 5.79). The results show that the questionnaire as is, is maladapted to explore NTS. It is also indicated that practices trained are not always encountered in the work onboard. The article concludes with a discussion on how to potentially improve the evaluation and assessment of NTS in maritime degree programs.

This report is part of the Carrots & Sticks project, which has the main purpose of analysing policy instruments and measures that most cost-effectively can reduce emissions from maritime transport in Sweden. The purpose of this report is to provide an overview of the current situation of maritime transport in Sweden and to provide business-as-usual (BAU) scenarios for the future development of air emissions. By using AIS data (Automatic Identification System) for 2015, this report uses a bottom-up method to estimate air emissions from maritime transport. The report also examines how the estimated emissions contribute to the achievement of Swedish environmental quality objectives.

The environmental quality objectives of relevance when examining emissions to air from maritime transport, and which are of relevance within the Carrots & Sticks project, are Reduced climate impact, Clean air, Natural acidification only and Zero eutrophication. This report therefore focuses on the development of emissions to air related to these four objectives, which include emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxide (NOX).

The method used in the official statistics for estimating air emissions from maritime transport has recently (December 2019) been substantially modified. The previous estimation method had ambiguities related to the data collection process, which was the main reason for the modification of the method. Due to these uncertainties, this report develops an alternative method for estimation of emissions. The main advantages of the estimation method used in this report compared to the method used in the official statistics are that it allows a classification of the traffic types domestic, international and transit and that it covers a specific geographical area surrounding Sweden, which provides more information about where the emissions are emitted. Furthermore, recently developed emission factors are applied, which take current and decided policy instruments into account. The dataset also allows for the possibility of separating emissions emitted at sea and at berth, which can facilitate the analysis of the potential that policy instruments can have on emissions reduction.

The service crew is a vital part of the customer experience on board passenger ships, but also has important duties in the safety organization in case of emergencies. Yet, they are not always recognized as seafarers and have received less attention in research that addresses occupational safety and health in the maritime domain.

This study explores the occupational safety and health for the service crew working on Swedish passenger ships.The purpose is to analyze causes of work-related ill-health, investigate and identify important aspects of the physical, organizational and social working conditions. The study has adopted a mixed methods approach, including survey questionnaires, register data on reported long-term sick leave, and field visits on board.

Key findings show that service crew on passenger ships report the highest levels of perceived exertion. They also have the highest rates of long-term sick leave lasting 60 days or more. Most diagnoses are related to musculoskeletal and psychological disorders. Important factors in the shipboard work environment include high physical load and strenuous working postures, poor workplace design, long working hours, limited time for recovery, and the perceived mental and emotional load that comes with unclear boundaries between work and recreation and the social interaction with customers and colleagues. The most prominent health promotive factors to reduce the perceived exertion are appropriate manning, time to rest, working with managers that attend to problems and experiencing good working relations with other departments on board.

The purpose of the “Carrots and sticks” project is to identify the policy instruments and measures that can reduce air emissions from shipping and contribute to the fulfilment of the national Swedish environmental quality objectives Reduced climate impact, Clean Air, Natural acidification only and Zero eutrophication in a cost-effective way. The climate objective has quantified targets 2030 and 2045; the EU and the IMO (International Maritime Organization) have also set up climate goals.

The identification of the most relevant policies and measures is based on a global review of the policies and measures. Available ex-ante and ex-post analyses and studies that estimate the potential to reduce air emissions from shipping are analysed. It is shown that most policies have been implemented in Northern Europe and North America.

Specific circumstances for Sweden are considered. The visiting profile is extreme, as just a few ferries perform about two-thirds of the calls and cause about half of the air emissions while one-third of the ships call into Sweden less frequently than once a year. The share of international transport is high and growing, which implies the importance of IMO and EU policies as well as the strong cooperation with neighbouring countries to reduce the air emissions from shipping.

Air emissions of sulphur dioxides (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and particulate matter (PM) and greenhouse gases (GHG) from shipping in the waters in and close to Sweden 2015 are estimated based on the bottom-up approach using AIS-data (Automatic Identification System) and other sources. Four BAU-scenarios (business as usual) are developed for the target years 2030 and 2045. They comprise different assumptions about the development of transport demand, energy efficiency improvement and the fuels used. The calculated volumes of air emissions are highest when the assumptions of the Swedish public agencies are used. It is recommended to consider estimates from different sources in the next Swedish forecasts and scenarios.

Crowding in public transportation is increasingly perceived as a problem in large cities. Public transport authorities strive to develop policies that manage demand and reduce crowding in the best way. This paper reviews studies of policy instruments aimed at crowding and demand management of public transportation, mainly quantitative studies. The most observed policies are adjustments of fare (including differentiation), frequency, capacity, bus size and in some cases road tolls. The reviewed studies either implicitly represent crowding by the willingness to pay for less crowding or by reduction of occupancy levels. We subdivide papers into studies that model transport scenarios and studies that observe passenger demand, often real-world cases. We use social welfare optimization as reference point for analysis of the study contributions. Studies that observe passenger demand present results limited to the effects on overall demand and generally not in terms of social welfare. Some studies report on price differentiating policies that succeed in reducing peak demand, reductions ranging from 1.2 to 10 percent. Most modelling studies find it optimal for occupancy to decrease, however, some studies find that higher occupancy rates are welfare optimal. Few of the reviewed studies present the costs and benefits directly associated with decreasing occupancy. Few studies present both spatio-temporal distributions of occupancy and include a policy for the reduction of crowding. This suggests that a clearer picture of the severity of on-board crowding, together with a policy to manage crowding would be useful.

Denna sammanfattning innehåller framför allt resultat från tre rapporter som har tagits fram inom projektet ”Morötter och piskor”. Dessa rapporter har skrivits parallellt och de bygger delvis på varandra. Nedan sammanfattas de viktigaste resultaten och slutsatserna från dessa tre rapporter och det formuleras gemensamma rekommendationer. Projektets samtliga leveranser är sammanställda i bilagan

Sammanfattningen är strukturerad enligt följande: Detta avsnitt fortsätter genom att beskriva syftet och målet med projektet ”Morötter och piskor”; vidare beskrivs innehållet mer detaljerat.

Avsnitt 2 ger en översikt av utsläpp till luft från sjöfarten i Östersjön, Kattegatt och Skagerack från 2015 samt från ”business-as-usual”(BAU)-scenarier till 2030 och 2045.

Avsnitt 3 beskriver hur utsläppsminskningar och kostnader för olika åtgärder för att minska utsläppen till luft från sjöfarten har beräknats.

Avsnitt 4 innehåller den sista och sammanfattande rapporten som studerar styrmedel i hela världen och de specifika förutsättningarna i Sverige; förenklade samhällsekonomiska analyser genomförs och rekommendationer för svenska beslutsfattare tas fram.

Avsnitt 5 sammanfattar slutsatser och ger rekommendationer baserat på projektet.

In moving towards a sustainable transport system, the Swedish government has stated that policy actions related to electrification and increasing the share of renewable fuels must be complemented with a modal shift of freight transport from road to rail and sea. The question addressed in this report is whether policies aimed specifically at improving the attractiveness of small ports in Sweden can contribute to an increased use of maritime transport by enabling more competitive services. Small ports are typically considered to be at a disadvantage due to not being able to achieve economies of scale and their lack of connectivity to large trade routes. There are significant economies of scale in port operations but increasing the competitiveness of small and peripheral ports may be key to achieving a modal shift. This study sets out to investigate broadly what would be required for maritime transport services utilizing small ports to be competitive vis-à-vis competing land-based services.

Swedish small ports are at a structural disadvantage in several respects. For several small ports, users face higher costs of pilotage due to long and time-consuming navigational approaches. The current structure of fairway dues is not set up to incentivize maritime services consolidating/de-consolidating cargo at several small ports. The sum of port-related costs is high in general, which incentivizes a reduction in the number of port calls and favours a rationalization of avoidable visits at small ports.

In order to investigate the potential for small ports to contribute to a modal shift, we simulate the effect of four policy scenarios aimed to improve the competitiveness of maritime freight transport as a modal alternative or to improve the competitiveness of small ports specifically. These scenarios are 1) reducing maritime transport costs, 2) increasing road transport costs, 3) reducing the costs of cargo handling at small Swedish ports and 4) reducing cargo handling times at small Swedish ports.

The results show that all simulated scenarios would lead to an increase in the modal share of maritime freight transport. However, the effect of the policies that either reduce maritime transport costs overall or increase road transport costs have a greater effect on the modal split than the policies aimed specifically at small ports. The interesting finding is made that most of the increased maritime tonnage that would follow as a result of more competitive maritime freight services would be absorbed by small ports in the system. The study shows that in order to enact a successful modal shift strategy, small and peripheral ports need be considered as part of the solution. If extending the sea legs of intermodal freight trips is an objective, it is crucial to maintain a geographically diverse and highly functioning port system in order to serve the needs of shippers and cargo owners. We highlight the need for future research to more comprehensively assess how underutilized potential in the entire port system can be used to promote competitive short-sea services as a modal alternative to road.

Based on an assignment by the Swedish Maritime Administration (SMA), this report analyzes the sensitivity of freight transport on Lake Vänern and Lake Mälaren regarding changes in fees and dues. The background for this study is that the SMA in 2018 introduced a new way of charging for fairway dues and pilot fees, and that the SMA in order to support a possible future revision of the charging system, needs more comprehensive knowledge regarding the development of traffic on Lake Vänern and Lake Mälaren over time. This report studies the period 2016 to 2019. In this assignment, the SMA also requested answers to a series of specific questions. The answers to the following questions are given in the report: a) How much of the total transport cost for vessel trips calling at ports in Lake Vänern and Lake Mälaren are made up of fees and dues levied by the SMA?, b) How are the charges distributed between fairway dues and pilot fees?, c) How has vessel traffic on Lake Vänern and Lake Mälaren changed between 2016 and 2019?, d) Based on the changed system of charging for dues and fees during the period, has there been a modal shift from sea to land-based transport?, e) What does the composition of cargoes transported by sea look like, and has it changed over time?, f) What is the price elasticity with regard to shifting various types of goods to other modes of transport?, g) How have transport costs changed during the period for land-based transport compared to maritime transport? The following methods are applied: analysis of SMA’s revenues from fairway dues and pilot fees and Transport Analysis statistics Shipping goods, a literature review and cost calculations for some cases.

The Swedish system for determining fairway dues at the national level is acknowledged as being unique in attempting to consider the environmental performance of vessels. Between 1998 and 2014, vessels could get a SOX discount and between 1998 and 2017 a NOx discount, both based on certificates. In 2018, the Swedish government initiated a new system comprising more environmental impacts requiring operators that want to benefit from it, to register their vessels for a score in the Clean Shipping Index (CSI). The CSI covers performance in five categories: NOX, CO2, SOX/PM, Chemicals and Waste. Based on received scores, vessels can get 10%, 30% or 90% discount. In this paper, the short-term outcome of the new system is analysed and compared to the old NOX-based system. The comparison is based on revealed preferences of the involved vessel operators. Vessel specific data about the discounts and scores are analysed as well as the regional distribution of discounts and impacts on different vessel types. The paper shows that the Swedish Maritime Administration has succeeded in creating a system that attracts more vessel types and encompasses more environmental categories, but that the incentives to reduce NOX emissions have been reduced. Ex-post cost-benefit analyses of the earlier certificate-based systems have proven them beneficial to society. However, it is unclear how the outcome of the new system will be. The paper suggests that there are efficiency gains in harmonising the system SMA has introduced with the different systems for environmentally differentiated port fees in Sweden.

This article presents findings from an ongoing research project aiming to study the future of shipping operations with a specific focus on issues related to human roles, responsibilities and the organization of work. A focus group with representatives for the Swedish shipping cluster (n = 6) and academia (n = 2) has been conducted to explore potential strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) with the developments towards autonomous shipping. The results show an overall concern for how to realize the transition between today’s maritime traffic and a future setting where vessels may be operated from shore. Technology to automate navigational tasks and increase the degree of autonomy in shipping are developing, but more attention needs to be paid to the transition of work that may accompany the ongoing developments. Clear roles, responsibili- ties and a definition of potential operator competences need to be formulated to ensure a human-centered development for safer shipping.

VTI has been assigned by the Swedish Maritime Administration (SMA) to analyze the effects of the structural changes made to the charging system for fairway and pilot fees between 2017 and 2018. To study the effects of the changed system, the sum of fees extracted in 2018 with the sum of fees extracted in 2017 are compared, but the latter figure is scaled up to generate the same amount of total income as in 2018. This is in order to simulate a scenario where the SMA would have raised its fees but kept its previous charging system. Comparing the two outcomes illustrates how the fees extracted from different vessel segments and sizes were affected by the changes made to the charging system. When the total value of extracted fairway fees before and after the change according to the description above are analyzed, the total value of extracted fees was lowered for the tanker and bulk segments in 2018. This indicates that these segments benefited from the changed charging structure. The segments that were adversely impacted were container vessels, RoRo vessels and general cargo vessels. On average, the system in place since 2018 has led to lower environmental incentives per vessel than the system in place until 2017. However, the value of environmental incentives increased in 2019. The change in pilot fees had the largest effect on the RoRo and general cargo segments. For the general cargo segment, the change led to an increase in the value of pilot fees charged per service of around 1 500 SEK and for RoRo vessels, the change is calculated to have led to a reduced average pilotage fee of around 2 600 SEK per service. In order to provide an overall view of how sensitive maritime transport is regarding changes in fairway dues and pilot fees, an analysis has been undertaken in which transport costs for a few trade links have been calculated. Simple cost comparisons like this can primarily be of use in highlighting the economies of scale inherent in shipping and rail transport operations. In order to study the extent of competition between modes, other logistical factors such as inventory holding, frequency of service, flexibility etc. need to be considered.