• Evaluation of a globally unique system of environmentally differentiated fairway dues.
• The evolution of the system and its effects are analyzed.
• Emissions reductions achieved and associated abatement costs are estimated.
• Costs and benefits for society are compared.
• Abatement costs for both SOx and NOx substantially lower than value to society.

For the case of Sweden, this paper aims to determine how a range of different infrastructure fees and taxes influences modal split, port throughputs, air emissions, societal costs of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and air pollution, as well as logistics costs.

The Swedish national freight model is used to simulate a range of different proposed infrastructure fees, one by one and in combination. The volume of emissions of CO₂-equivalents, NOx, SOx and PM under the different scenarios is calculated in both volume and monetary terms, by applying national emission factors and EU values for external costs.

Road user fees are calculated to have the largest impact on the modal split, GHG emissions and air pollution. The impact increases slightly when road user fees are combined with higher fees for sea and rail and/or gate fees in all Swedish ports. The imposition of gate fees over €30 per truck in all ports leads to shifts in cargo to land-based modes and to ports outside Sweden. The logistics costs in Sweden are found to be three to ten times higher than the benefits of reduced GHG emissions and air pollution, although other benefits to society need to be considered as well.

The results can be used as basis for policy-making. They illustrate the environmental impacts of the fees and taxes one by one and in combination and to what extent these reinforce each other and should be co-ordinated.

The outcomes are relevant to national and international policymakers and authorities, as well as port authorities, shippers and transport companies who need to determine unilateral strategies on how to reduce GHG emissions and air pollution, without undermining their wider business objectives.

The purpose of this paper is to identify and classify the various initiatives developed and implemented across the globe for the abatement of maritime air emissions.

In this paper, an extensive survey of various sources was conducted, including the official reports of international and regional institutions, government policy documents, port authority websites, classification society pages, private firms’ sites and the academic literature. The initiatives were then categorized in accordance with the classification of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and analyzed using the SPSS Statistics software to give some insight into their frequencies and the interrelationships between them.

This exploratory review resulted in the establishment of a comprehensive global database of initiatives encouraged by the whole range of shipping stakeholders and decision-makers for the reduction of shipping air emissions. According to the findings, economic incentives that provide motivation for the adoption of less environmentally damaging practices are the most commonly used initiative, followed by infrastructure investments and informative policies.

The results provide implications for further research that include an in-depth analysis of ports’ policies, as well as an evaluation of initiatives applied on a large scale to map their emissions reduction potential for shipping.

The main contribution of this paper is the identification and analysis of all the diverse initiatives implemented globally in a comprehensive way and its dealing with air pollution from shipping as a whole.

The report aims to present and analyze the development of the environmentally differentiated fairway dues in Sweden and the impacts of the system. A system differentiated for sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) was introduced in 1998. The implementation of the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) stricter SOx requirements in the Baltic and North Sea areas in 2015 made the SOx differentiation obsolete. In 2018 the system was replaced by a new fee system with different differentiation.

The Swedish Maritime Administration (SMA) is responsible for determining and collecting the fairway dues and is also dependent on this income as an important source of funding for its activities. The amounts to be paid and the emission levels that are necessary to be eligible for a certificate that entitles discounts are stated in the SMA’s regulations on fairway dues. These regulations have changed over the years and to give an overview of these changes a presentation of regulations and found amendments is provided.

Except for some early studies evaluating the first few years of the environmentally differentiated fairway dues, little has been done to evaluate the impact of the policy instrument that was in place for 20 years. The information found in previous studies, annual reports and available data provided by the SMA is compiled and analyzed to present the impacts of the fairway dues from 1998 to 2017.

The numbers and characteristics of vessels with SOx and NOx reduction certificates are compiled from several sources. Abatement techniques and costs are discussed. Available estimates of reduced emissions from certified vessels are presented and analyzed. As far as possible, the costs and benefits for society of reduced emissions are compared and the contribution to fulfillment of environmental objectives is discussed. More emphasis is placed on the NOx differentiation since problems with high levels of NOx emissions remain whereas SOx emissions have declined substantially in the Baltic Sea, especially since the implementation of stricter IMO requirements.

Syftet med rapporten är att presentera och analysera utvecklingen av de miljödifferentierade farledsavgifterna i Sverige och systemets inverkan. Ett system differentierat för svaveloxider (SOx) och kväveoxider (NOx) infördes 1998. Införandet av Internationella sjöfartsorganisationens (IMO) striktare SOx krav i Östersjön och Nordsjönsområdet 2015 ersatte behovet av SOx differentieringen. 2018 ersattes systemet av ett nytt avgiftssystem med en annan differentiering.

Sjöfartsverket ansvarar för att fastställa och infordra farledsavgifterna och är också beroende av denna inkomst som en viktig finansieringskälla till dess aktiviteter. De belopp som ska betalas och utsläppsnivåerna som krävs för att få ett certifikat som ger rätt till lägre farledsavgifter anges i Sjöfartsverkets föreskrifter om farledsavgift. Dessa föreskrifter har ändrats under åren och för att ge en överblick av dessa förändringar ges en presentation av föreskrifter och funna ändringar.

Förutom några tidiga studier som utvärderar de första åren av de miljödifferentierade farledsavgifterna, har lite gjorts för att utvärdera effekten av styrmedlet som var implementerat under 20 år. Information från tidigare studier, årliga rapporter och tillgängliga data från Sjöfartsverket sammanställs och analyseras för att presentera effekterna av farledsavgifterna från 1998 till 2017.

Antalet fartyg med SOx- och NOx-reduktionscertifikat och dess egenskaper sammanställs från flera källor. Åtgärder och kostnader för att minska utsläppen diskuteras. Tillgängliga uppskattningar av reducerade utsläpp från certifierade fartyg presenteras och analyseras. Så långt som möjligt jämförs samhällsekonomiska kostnader och nyttor av minskade utsläpp och bidraget till uppfyllandet av miljömål diskuteras. Mer fokus läggs på NOx-differentieringen eftersom problem med höga nivåer av NOx-utsläpp kvarstår, medan SOx-utsläppen har minskat avsevärt i Östersjön, särskilt efter införandet av IMO:s striktare krav.

Transporter ger upphov till externa kostnader för exempelvis utsläpp av luftföroreningar, koldioxid och buller. Förekomsten av internaliserande skatter och avgifter relaterade till transporter gör att externa kostnader beaktas vid beslut om transporter. Hur väl skatter och avgifter täcker de externa kostnaderna kan presenteras som kvoten av dessa, internaliseringsgraden. I denna rapport presenteras och analyseras studier av godstransporters externa kostnader och internaliseringsgrader i olika länder i Europa. Rapporten ska användas som underlag i Trafikanalys årliga regeringsuppdrag att rapportera om transportsektorns externa kostnader och skatter och avgifter.

En litteraturgenomgång har gjorts av den akademiska och gråa litteraturen. Avgränsningen har varit aktuella studier för länder eller transportkorridorer inom Europa. Utgångspunkten för analysen av de inventerade studierna har varit Trafikanalys sammanställning av internaliseringsgrader i Sverige och i korridorer i Europa.

Transports cause external costs of, for example, emissions of air pollutants, carbon dioxide and noise. The presence of internalizing taxes and fees related to transports means that external costs are taken into account when deciding on transports. How well taxes and fees cover the external costs can be presented as the ratio of these, the degree of internalization. In this report, studies of freight transports’ external costs and degrees of internalization in different countries in Europe are presented and analyzed. The report will be used as a basis in Transport Analysis’ annual government commission to report on the transport sector’s external costs and taxes and fees.

A literature review has been conducted of academic and grey literature. The delimitation has been recent studies of countries or transport corridors in Europe. The reference point for the analysis of the included studies has been Transport Analysis’ compilations of degrees of internalization in Sweden and in corridors in Europe.