The purpose of the present study is to estimate accident risks and marginal costs for railway level crossings in Sweden. The marginal effect of train traffic on the accident risk is used to derive the marginal cost per train passage that is due to level crossing accidents. The estimations are based on Swedish data from 2000 to 2012 on level crossing accidents, train volume, and crossing characteristics. In this study we estimate the accidents risk for both motorized road traffic and vulnerable road users. As a proxy for road traffic flow we use three categories of road type, and to capture the influences of pedestrians and bicyclists we use information about the number of persons living nearby the level crossing. The results show that both protection device, road type, traffic volume of the trains, and number of persons living nearby the level crossing have significant influence on the accident probability. The marginal cost per train passage regarding motor vehicle accidents is estimated at EUR 0.15 on average in 2012 (price level of 2017). The corresponding number for accidents with vulnerable road users excluding suicides is EUR 0.08 or including suicides EUR 0.50. The cost per train passage varies substantially depending on type of protection device, road type, the traffic volume of the trains, and number of persons living nearby the crossing.

Purpose

The aim of this study is to estimate monetary abatement values for road and rail traffic noise that can be used for policy purposes. However, a main objective is to critically discuss the assumptions necessary to convert the monetary values elicited in willingness to pay (WTP) studies to values than can be use for policy purposes.

Methods

We employ the hedonic regression technique on Swedish data to elicit individuals' preferences for noise abatement. Our elicited values are then converted to policy values and critically examined based on findings from a literature review.

Results

We show that WTP for road and rail not only differs in levels but also that the relationship between the noise level and the marginal value differs between the two sources. We also show that a health cost component added to the WTP estimate, based on the assumption of uninformed property buyers, will be small but not negligible and that also modest differences in the assumption of the discount rates will have a significant effect on the estimated values.

Conclusions

The main implications from this study are: (i) WTP for road and railway noise abatement differs not only on absolute but also marginal levels, (ii) Even small differences in the chosen discount rate, which is necessary to convert WTP values from a hedonic price study to policy values, have large effects on the policy values, and (iii) We show how to add a health cost component to the WTP estimates in order for the monetary estimates to reflect the total social cost. However, we argue that the motivation for doing so is weak and that more research is needed on this issue.

Syftet med denna rapport är att beräkna marginalkostnader för buller, trafiksäkerhet och vägslitage för bussar och lätta lastbilar. Bullerkostnaderna beräknas med modellen Nord 2000 tillsammans med kalkylvärden från ASEK 5. Marginalkostnaden för trafiksäkerhet beräknas utifrån olycksstatistik i STRADA, en fördelning av trafikarbete mellan landsbygd och tätort samt kalkylvärden från ASEK 5. Marginalkostnaden för vägslitage beräknas genom att justera de värden för genomsnittliga tunga fordon som finns i ASEK 5. Justeringen görs utifrån antalet standardaxlar. För bussar beräknas antalet standardaxlar med hjälp av statistik från fordonsregistret, medan antalet standardaxlar hos lätta lastbilar beräknas utifrån fordonstypens maximala totalvikt. Marginalkostnaden för buller har differentierats på vägar med olika ÅDT och omgivning med olika tät befolkning.

The purpose of this report is to estimate marginal costs for noise, traffic safety and road wear and tear for buses and light trucks. The noise costs are computed using the Nord 2000 model together with values from ASEK 5. Marginal costs for traffic safety are estimated using accident information from STRADA, together with a distribution showing the shares of traffic in urban and non-urban areas and values from ASEK 5. The marginal costs for road wear and tear are computed by an adjustment of costs for average weighted vehicles from ASEK 5. The adjustment is based on the number of equivalent standard axle loadings. For buses the number of standard axles is computed using information from the road traffic registry. The number of standard axles on light trucks is computed using the maximum total weight of that vehicle category. The marginal cost for noise is differentiated between roads with various traffic load and roads with differently populated surroundings.

Syftet med denna rapport är att göra en samhällsekonomisk analys som visar hur de kostnader som rundvirkestransporter med lastbil ger upphov till, skulle påverkas om fordonens totalvikt tilläts öka från 60 till 90 ton och samtidigt få en tillåten maxlängd på 30 meter. Analysen görs på två sätt. Först redovisas genomsnittliga kostnader per fordonskilometer för olika fordonsstorlekar. Dessutom görs en kalkyl, som utgår från scenarier om hur mycket trafikarbetet skulle påverkas om större fordon tilläts. För att analysera hur transporterna av rundvirke genomförs i olika scenarier används den svenska godstransportmodellen Samgods. Flödesberäkningar från denna används därefter tillsammans med uppgifter från Nationella vägdatabasen (NVDB) för att beräkna samhällsekonomiska kostnader. Dessa beräkningar tar hänsyn till vägtyp och andra lokala förutsättningar och fångar därmed upp den variation i samhällsekonomiska kostnader som finns. Beräkningarna sammanfattas med den totala kostnaden för att transportera rundvirke med lastbil i Sverige under ett år. Enligt simuleringarna minskar trafikarbetet med 21 procent om 60-tonsfordon ersätts med 90-tonsfordon, om man inte tar hänsyn till brorestriktionerna. Detta ger en total samhällsekonomisk kostnadssänkning med 4 procent eller 163 miljoner kronor årligen. Då ska man dock komma ihåg att kostnaden för bärighetsåtgärder på broar, vilket är en förutsättning för att scenariot ska kunna realiseras, inte är inkluderade i analysen. Om vissa broar är spärrade för trafik med 90-tonsfordon är det inte generellt lönsamt att ersätta 60-tonsfordon, eftersom den samhällsekonomiska kostnaden då ökar med 15 procent. Redan idag är det dock möjligt att använda 90-tonsfordon på ett antal stråk som är viktiga för rundvirkestransporter.

The purpose of this report is to make a cost benefit analysis, showing how costs for truck transports of round wood would change if vehicles with a total weight of 90 tonnes were used instead of the 60-tonne vehicles that are currently in use. The analysis has two parts. First, costs per vehicle kilometre are presented for both vehicle sizes. This gives a good general view but does not take into account the various conditions with regard to road type, etcetera, that affect costs. Neither does it take into account that the amount of vehicle kilometres associated with round wood transports changes if larger vehicles are allowed. Therefore a scenario analysis is also performed. The basis for this analysis is simulations using the Swedish transport and logistics system Samgods. Flow estimates from Samgods are combined with road attribute data from the national road database (NVDB) to compute the total transport cost, including externalities. In these computations road type and other situation specific factors are taken into account. The scenario analysis is summarized by the total annual cost for road transports of round wood in Sweden. Due to the simulations the amount of vehicle kilometres are reduced by 21 percent if 60-tonne vehicles are replace by 90-tonne vehicles, given that the capacity of bridges is left without regard. In socioeconomic terms this equals cost reduction of 4 per cent of 163 million Swedish crowns annually. It should be kept in mind, though, that costs for improving bridge capacity, which is required for this scenario to be realized, are not included in the analysis. When 90-tonne vehicles are not allowed to pass bridges with limited bearing capacity, larger vehicles do not generally improve efficiency. There are however some important round wood transport routes where larger vehicles are possible to use without any measures to improve bridges.

Potentialen i Sverige för produktion av avfallsbaserad rötgas som kan uppgraderas för fordonsbruk överstiger långsiktigt inte 3 TWh (ca fyra gånger mer än idag). Vi finner att klimateffekten blir störst och kostnaden lägst om gasen används i fordon och fartyg som tankar från större depåer. För användning i fartyg måste dock läckaget av metan hållas på låg nivå annars blir klimateffekten sämre än om gasen används i tunga vägfordon. Att sprida ut biogasen över ett stort antal personbilar spridda över hela landet ger mycket höga kostnader och ter sig inte som en framkomlig väg. Utan subventioner kommer biogasen konsumeras i bussar, lastbilar och fartyg. Sverige är på väg mot ökad obalans mellan utbud och efterfrågan på biogas för fordonsbruk. Det kan göra att satsningen på fler biogaspersonbilar blir en bro till ökad och långvarig användning av naturgas. Det är ännu för tidigt att säga om termisk förgasning av biomassa kan bli ett ekonomiskt hållbart sätt att öka utbudet av inhemskt producerad biogas.

This study examines the relationship between train traffic and the accident risk for road users at level crossings. The marginal effect of train traffic on the accident risk can be used to derive the marginal cost per train passage that is due to level crossing accidents. Based on Swedish data from 2000 to 2008 on level crossing accidents, train volume and crossing characteristics, the marginal cost per train passage is estimated at SEK 1.13 (EUR 0.11) on average in 2008. The cost per train passage varies substantially depending on type of warning device, road type and the traffic volume of the trains.

This paper describes an effort to calculate marginal costs for railway traffic in Sweden using 1) standardised and already well established methods for calculating noise and 2) valuations of noise based on hedonic regression. The main point is that the marginal costs are calculated using well established methods used for other purposes (urban planning for the noise method and cost benefit analysis for the noise values), the combination of these methods requires knowledge in both transport economics and acoustics but apart from that no new methods need to be developed. The results show large variations over the network explained mainly by the large variations in population density. It is necessary to include similar variations in a charging system in order to gain the full benefits of internalizing the noise cost.

Den svenska miljöklassningen av diesel innebär att diesel som uppfyller villkoren för miljöklass 1 beskattas med en energiskatt som är 40 öre lägre per liter bränsle än diesel som hamnar i miljöklass 3. Miljöklass 1-dieseln har något högre tillverkningskostnader än den så kallade Europadieseln som inte uppfyller villkoren för miljöklass 1, dock lägre än skatteskillnaden på 40 öre. Detta gör att miljöklass 1-dieseln blir billigare i konsumentledet och den svenska dieselmarknaden domineras helt och hållet av miljöklass 1-diesel. Sverige är i princip det enda land som använder diesel av miljöklass 1-kvalité och i övriga Europa dominerar den så kallade Europadieseln. Det finns dokumenterade skillnader i utsläpp av ett flertal ämnen mellan de båda dieselkvalitéerna, i de flesta men inte alla fall till miljöklass 1-dieselns fördel.

Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut (VTI) har i denna promemoria på uppdrag av Statoil värderat uppmätta utsläppsskillnader för tunga fordon i samhällsekonomiska termer. Uppgifter om utsläpp hämtas från en rapport skriven av AVL på uppdrag av Trafikverket. Denna rapport sammanfattar mätningar som gjorts under perioden 2003–2008. Efter denna period har specifikationerna för såväl miljöklass 1-diesel och så kallad Europadiesel förändrats och därmed förmodligen även utsläppsegenskaperna. Föreliggande studie baseras på de tidigare gjorda mätningarna som således gjorts med de tidigare specifikationerna av diesel. För värderingen används i huvudsak de officiella kalkylvärdena för luftföroreningar i transportsektorn, de så kallade ASEK-värdena.

The Swedish diesel market is dominated by a fuel quality that differs in several aspects from the fuel quality that is used in the rest of Europe. The Swedish fuel quality was introduced in 1991 as a fuel designed to reduce both regulated and unregulated emissions compared to the standard European diesel. Since then the gap between Swedish fuel and the standard European fuel quality has diminished as the European diesel has improved. This study examines the remaining differences in exhaust emissions between the two fuel qualities, and values the difference in emissions using the official Swedish values for air pollutants in the transport sector.

Information on exhaust emissions from heavy duty diesel engines is taken from a literature study. The results show that the use of standard European diesel (EN590) instead of the Swedish fuel quality (MK1) gives rise to extra emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) to a value of 10–19 öre (1–2 eurocent) per liter diesel for heavy vehicles meeting Euro IV or V requirements. For vehicles meeting only Euro III requirements the extra emissions of nitrogen oxides are valued to 19–29 öre (2–3 eurocent) per liter diesel. EN590 also gives rise to more emissions of particulate matter (PM). The valuation of particulate matter depends on the size of the population living in the area where the vehicle is driven. For a heavy vehicle meeting Euro IV or V requirements driven in a small town like Laholm the extra emissions from EN590 is valued to a maximum of 5 öre (0,5 eurocent) while the extra emissions from the same vehicle driven in the inner city of Stockholm is valued up to 52 öre (5 eurocent) per liter diesel. For vehicles only meeting Euro III requirements the extra cost from EN590 is even larger.

Over time as old and dirty vehicles are replaced by new vehicles meeting harder emission requirements the advantage of MK1 over EN590 will diminish. For private cars the difference in emissions is also most probably smaller than between the heavy vehicles that are analyzed in this study due to lower emissions per liter diesel.

Several authors have argued that acceptability for road pricing is likely to increase with familiarity. The experiences in Stockholm, where a trial period with congestion charges changed the public opinion from negative to positive, support this hypothesis. Analysing acceptability and attitudes in Stockholm allows us to study a situation where the population is in fact familiar with congestion charges, and explore what the decisive factors for acceptability are in such a situation. By analysing a survey collected after the referendum and the subsequent reintroduction of the charges, we analyse the prerequisites to achieve acceptability given that the public is familiar with congestion charges.

As expected, low car dependence and good transit supply are associated with high acceptability. But the two most important factors turn out to be beliefs about the charges' effectiveness, and general environmental attitudes. The importance of beliefs and perceptions of the effects of the charges underscores the importance of both careful system design and careful evaluation and results communication. The strong connection between environmental concerns and positive attitudes to congestion charges underscores the importance of considering and “marketing” the charges' environmental effects. In Stockholm, the politicians' decision to “re-label” the congestion charges to “environmental charges” and emphasising their positive effects on air quality may very well have had a positive impact on acceptability.

In this study we estimate the willingness to pay for railway noise abatements based on the effect of railway noise on property prices. We estimate both steps of the hedonic regression technique on a large data set of different Swedish regions which contains detailed information about railway noise along with socioeconomic characteristics for each property/household. The estimated demand relationship suggest welfare gains for a 1 dB reduction of railway noise as; 1240 SEK per individual and year at the baseline noise level of 71 dB, and 661 SEK at the baseline noise level of 61 dB. Below a noise level of 49.09 dB, individuals have no willingness to pay for railway noise abatements. In policy, these results can be used for cost benefit analysis and to derive marginal costs for infrastructure charges.