Inom ramen för projektet What you see is where you get har upplevda och faktiska nyttor med en så kallad realtidskarta för kollektivtrafik studerats. Projektet undersöker om en realtidskarta kan förenkla och förändra resenärers beslutsfattande vid kollektivt resande. Vi vill ta reda på resenärers informationsbehov, beslut och önskemål med ett sådant verktyg. På senare tid har en mängd tekniska tjänster som förser kollektiv-trafikresenärer med uppgifter om fordons tillgänglighet i form av tid och plats introducerats. Antagandet för projektet är att tillgången till en bra karta i realtid med olika funktioner skulle kunna förändra och eventuellt förenkla resandet. För att besvara frågorna knutna till detta har attityder, önskemål, behov och användning testats hos såväl kollektiv-trafikresenärer som operatörer/kollektivtrafikmyndigheter.

Då realtidskartan visades för tre grupper av resenärer i olika åldrar visade resultaten att samtliga var positiva och kunde tänka sig att använda realtidskartan, som ett komplement till den reseplaneringsapplikation de redan använde. Realtidskartan behövde utvecklas för att bli mer hanterbar och kunna fylla fler behov.

Då realtidskartan visades på en busshållplats där resenärerna på en skärm kunde se de vanliga tidsangivelserna växelvis med en realtidskarta, visade resultaten ett lågt intresse för kartan. En introduktion eller instruktion skulle behövas. Ett antal resenärer testade realtidskartan under en resa i staden. I projektet intervjuades även resenärer vid hållplatser om de uppmärksammat och använde realtidskartan i reseplaneringsappen.

En övergripande slutsats är att man även inom kollektivtrafikbranschen verkar ha svårt att (mer teoretiskt) sätta sig in i det nya koncept som realtidskartor innebär, och att det ännu är få som har använt dem när de reser. En ytterligare slutsats, från jämförelse mellan de individuella enkätsvaren, är att de som faktiskt hade använt realtidskartor när de reser också hade attityder som reflekterade att de både kunde vara mycket nöjda och mycket missnöjda med hur realtidskartan fungerat.

Objectives: This study investigated which work-related stressors are rated highest by train drivers and which are strongest correlated with consideration to change profession.

Methods: In a questionnaire, a total of 251 Swedish train drivers rated 17 work-related stressors, to which extent they had considered quitting their profession, and if they had experienced a PUT (person under train) accident.

Results: PUTs (when experienced) and irregular work hours are the main stressors, but the strongest predictors of consideration to change profession are those that are encountered often, and last over time (eg, irregular work hours, r = 0.61, and major organizational changes, r = 0.51).

Conclusions: For effective reduction of stress and improved job satisfaction, focus should be on aspects that affect everyday life for drivers, such as better working shifts, less delays, and improved social climate.

Simulatorer för utryckningskörning har ingått i flera VTI-projekt. Erfarenheterna och den tekniska utvecklingen har resulterat i en simulator för utryckningskörning. Syftet med denna rapport är att beskriva simulatorns användningsområden och funktionalitet samt ge en teknisk beskrivning.

Effects of rear-light usage were examined via a field experiment, a questionnaire study, and an observational study. The field experiment measured passing vehicles' lateral distance to a stationary car, as an effect of lit or unlit rear lights. The questionnaire measured car drivers' perceptions regarding safety and visibility depending on rear-light usage, and their experiences, preferences, and own usage of rear lights in daylight. The results showed that lit rear lights give greater lateral distance when being passed by. A stationary car with lit rear lights is interpreted as more likely to be running and therefore as more likely to start driving. Lit rear lights are preferred and are estimated to give better visibility and traffic safety. Only a small proportion of drivers know that they drive with unlit rear lights in daylight, whilst the majority actually do drive with unlit rear lights. The conclusion is that lit rear lights by daylight improve traffic safety (which contradicts claims behind the EU legislation); is preferred by drivers; that the majority of drivers do not know that they drive with unlit rear lights in daylight; and that there therefore is reason to revise the EU legislation concerning rear lights to make lit rear lights in daylight mandatory.

The purpose was to demonstrate that a successively denser interval of vertical markings on noise barriers near the road can slow down the mean speed. The concept has the potential to be a cost-efficient alternative or complement to road markings and road signs.

The method for investigation was a field experiment to measure the speed before, during, and after the time period when the test markings were mounted.

The results showed no effect of the test markings. It is possible that another type of traffic environment is needed than the type studied in the current field experiment in order to affect the drivers to slow down.

Background: Road signs are crucial for informing road users and need to be bright enough to be visible and readable, but not so bright that they cause glare. The brightness levels of road signs should also be appropriate for the vast majority of road users.

Purpose: The purpose was to evaluate readability of road signs of retroreflection classes RA2 and RA3B, with regard to factors affecting the retroreflection per se, amount of light onto the signs, and how well the driver sees. Objective measures of reading distance and visual status, and subjective measures of how different categories of drivers experience that they detect, read, and experience glare from road signs were also to be taken into account.

Methods: A field experiment measured reading distance (and visual acuity and contrast); and questionnaire studies measured opinions and experiences from different driver categories concerning driving in darkness in general, and about properties of road signs in darkness in particular.

The general purpose was to examine the visibility-enhancing and security-enhancing effects of police cruise light. 

A field experiment with a stationary police vehicle with cruise light was conducted three Friday nights at pedestrian paths by a town square, with many people passing by and meeting each other. In total 2,883 passing pedestrians were registered with regard to if they had seen the police vehicle or not, depending on whether the cruise light was on or not. The effect of cruise light was also compared in daylight versus darkness, on shorter versus longer viewing distance, and on a higher versus a lower police vehicle. 

Two questionnaire studies were also conducted, whereof one for the general public and one for the police in intervention activities and traffic police (12,723 and 1,132 finished questionnaires, respectively). The questions concerned how visibility-enhancing the cruise light is rated to be and how much more secure the general public feels and how much calmer the traffic is when the police is visibly present. Additionally, the extent of cruise light usage was examined, as well as to what extent the general public has taken notice of this usage. The ratings of the general public were also compared to the ratings of the police, with regard to both the visibility-enhancing effect of cruise light and to how much more secure the general public feels when the police is visibly present.

Tekniska förutsättningar för att undersöka effekterna av insatser för att minska trängsel i kollektivtrafiken med objektiva mått undersöktes, i syfte att förbereda för framtida studier. Insatserna kan handla dels om samhällsinsatser där grupper av kollektivtrafikresenärer får sina restider mer utspridda över dygnet, dels om insatser där resenärerna uppmuntras att resa med avgångar utan trängsel. Fem enkätundersökningar med totalt 7605 respondenter genomfördes också, i syfte att undersöka (1) om utspridda skolstartstider i Göteborg och Linköping haft mätbar effekt på upplevd trängsel under hösten 2020; (2) resenärernas upplevelser av trängsel, oro för att bli smittade, och trängseltolerans; och (3) hur information om fyllnadsgrad påverkar resval både generellt och för olika resenärskategorier.

Two experiments were carried out to test speed perception dependency on field of view (FoV), virtual road markings (VRMs), and presentation orders. The primary purpose was to examine how the extent of the optic flow (foremost peripherally–vertically) informs the driver about egospeed. A second purpose was to examine different task demands and stimulus characteristics supporting rhythm-based versus energy-based processing. A third purpose was to examine speed changes indicative of changes in motion sensitivity. Participants were tested in a car simulator, with FoV resembling low front-door windows, and with VRMs inside the car. Three main results were found. Larger FoV, both horizontally and peripherally–vertically, significantly reduced participants' speed, as did VRMs. Delineator posts and road center lines were used for participants' rhythm-based processing, when the task was to drive at target speeds. Rich motion-flow cues presented initially resulted in lower egospeed in subsequent conditions with relatively less motion-flow cues. The practical implication is that non-iconic, naturalistic and intuitive interfaces can effectively instill spontaneous speed adaptation in drivers.

Objective To examine the effect of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on differences in driving behavior and risk perception, in experienced drivers. Methods A total of 147 experienced drivers participated in the study. Drivers with ADHD (n = 91) were compared to an age-matched control group of drivers (n = 56) with no neuropsychiatric diagnoses. A simulator driving test (SDT) was used in the study and included a driving scenario with various traffic environments to examine any differences in number of collisions, number of speedings, risk index (based on 12 risky situations), speed adaptation (based on 19 road sections), mean speed, and preferred speed, between the two groups. The participants also completed a questionnaire about their driving behavior. Results No differences in the simulator driving test were found between the ADHD group and the control group. No adverse effects of ADHD were found for any of the measures, i.e., collisions, number of speeding, risk index, speed adaptation, mean speed and preferred speed. The only significant group difference was that drivers with ADHD rated themselves lower on concentration. Conclusions Participants with ADHD and the control group drove remarkably similarly in the simulator driving test and rated themselves similarly regarding how they drive. The results contribute to state that ADHD drivers are less deviant than asserted by previous research.

Effects of ADHD on driving speed were studied in a driving simulator with only visual motion cues, by comparing drivers with ADHD diagnosis (n = 36) to drivers from a normal student population (n = 28). Their task was to repeatedly accelerate to own preferred speed for a total of 26 trials (2 baseline, 24 experimental trials). Field of view (1, 3, 5, and 7 monitors) and virtual road markings (on, off) were manipulated. These eight experimental conditions were presented three times each (replicates). Overall mean speed did not differ between groups, but the ADHD group was less affected by the extra motion cues. Also, whereas the control group lowered their speed between replicates, the ADHD group did not. The combined results suggest that for ADHD drivers, speed perception is more of a rule-based skill and more based on attention, whereas the normal student population perceives speed more effortlessly.

Emergency driving entails substantially higher risk rates than ordinary driving, and it is crucial that other road users notice the emergency vehicles on call. Sirens and emergency lights are used to warn and demand that other road users give way and provide safe passage, but accidents still occur. The purpose of this study was to test the effect of a broadcast hyper local Emergency Vehicle Approaching (EVA) message via RDS radio, noticing that an emergency vehicle on call is approaching and demands that others give way, on the propensity of individual drivers to give way. In two simulator experiments, a total of 90 car drivers participated. In Experiment 1, drivers were passed three times by an ambulance in traffic conditions where it was easy to detect the ambulance early, and two versions of EVA message were compared to a baseline condition without a broadcast message. In Experiment 2, drivers were passed only once by an ambulance and in traffic conditions that made it difficult to detect the ambulance early, and either received an EVA message, or no message. The results showed that EVA messaging made drivers give way earlier and learned to give way earlier even without an EVA message. The main finding was that EVA messaging was necessary for making inexperienced drivers give way to an approaching emergency vehicle on call. Most of them did not know that they are obliged to give way, and some did not notice the emergency vehicle before it passed them. In conclusion, the study suggests that EVA messaging to alert and instruct drivers how to give way properly is beneficial for traffic safety and for enabling time-efficient emergency transports.

The supply of public transport in Sweden has been continuously increasing and as a consequence thereof, the cost for bus traffic has also increased. However, many indicators show that costs for public transports in Sweden in recent years have increased more than supply. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to test and evaluate the importance of the nine previously identified cost drivers (Camén & Lidestam, 2016) of public bus transports in Sweden. A mixed-method design, which included both focus groups and a questionnaire, was used. The questionnaire, with quantitative rating scales, was sent to representatives from the bus operators and from the Public Transport Authorities (PTAs). In the focus groups, industry associations, consultants, and politicians also participated. The results reveal what the dominating cost factors are, as well as the factors considered to be the most important, according to actors within the Swedish bus transport sector. The most important cost driver identified is peak traffic and the costs of its consequences.

Many European train drivers face major changes in their work with the introduction of the new train-protection system, the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), as information retrieval shifts from outside to in-cab, and a new rulebook is introduced. Therefore, many train drivers have to be educated in a short time, to make the transition safe and efficient. The purpose was to find out how a successful ERTMS practice can be designed in a physically low-fidelity but highly functional train-driving simulator. An experimental design was used, with 16 drivers divided into two groups: one group practiced in a simulator, and the other in reality. Standard training methodology was used, and the learning outcome was assessed by both measuring driving errors and via instructor evaluation of a simulator test. The drivers also filled in a questionnaire to capture how different factors, such as repeated practice, experience, and self-estimated confidence, correlate with performance. Results show that the simulator group committed significantly fewer driving errors and received significantly higher scores from the instructor. In addition, the simulator group's better performance is mostly caused by the possibility of repeated training of different special cases. The findings also imply that several of the more common special cases on the ERTMS can hardly be provoked in real train driving. Furthermore, this work strengthens the theory that novices can hardly estimate their own ability. Therefore, we argue that this type of low-fidelity simulator is well suited for research purposes, for practicing special cases, and for train operation companies to assess drivers' skills.

Objectives: The internship period of the Swedish train driver education was examined in terms of which types of situations can be sufficiently encountered in order to develop expertise to handle them safely and efficiently, and to quantify and specify the gap in expertise between expert and novice drivers in terms of risk of error and time efficiency. Focus was on special cases (i.e., situations that occur rarely but may cause severe accidents if not handled correctly and efficiently).

Methodology: Data on which situations and special cases a driver's student can be expected to experience during the internship period were collected via a web-based questionnaire. Also, ratings of expectations on novice and expert drivers were obtained from train driver educators, employers, and instructors with the purpose of comparing the expectations with the novices practical experience.

Results and conclusions: The main results suggest that many special cases are generally insufficiently practiced during the internship and therefore should be practiced in simulators; that both experienced and novice drivers prioritize safety over efficiency; and that expectations on novice drivers are realistic considering their limited professional expertise. © 2021, The Author(s).

Despite all the technical aids introduced to the railway the train drivers’ knowledge and skills are still important for traffic efficiency and safety. The literature shows a clear connection between practical experience and safer and more efficient action. Thus, the aims were (1) to examine what is likely to be included in the internship of the train driver education, and (2) to assess the difference in expectations on novice versus experienced drivers. Quantitative data, obtained through Swedish train drivers, indicate a great possibility that a student will not have the possibility to practice many situations sufficiently or even at all during internship. Results from the instructors and employers show that the expectations on the novice drivers can be regarded as realistic and correspond with the literature about development of profession expertise. Finally, we argue that pedagogical use of simulators may provide effective practice of critical situations in a safe environment.

Utöver en ökad kroppslig skörhet med stigande ålder, kan äldre förare ha en större risk för trafikolyckor på grund av medicinska tillstånd, läkemedel och funktionsnedsättningar. Specifika medicinska tillstånd och kognitiva nedsättningar kan påverka en säker bilkörning, som till exempel hjärtsjukdomar, demens och stroke. För körkortsinnehav finns vissa medicinska krav fastställda men när det gäller nedsättningar i kognitiva funktioner kan det vara svårt att bedöma huruvida dessa inverkar på körförmågan. Bakgrunden till projektet är att det finns få tillförlitliga tester som specifikt har tagits fram för bilkörning och lämplighet för körkortsinnehav. Syftet med studien var därför att utvärdera en ny testmetod, i form av ett simulatorprogram, för användning vid körkortsmedicinska utredningar inom hälso- och sjukvården för patienter med kognitiva nedsättningar, och att jämföra olika åldersgruppers prestationer. Studien undersökte även om prestationen och resultaten skiljde sig åt mellan olika åldrar och hur väl simulatortestet överensstämmer med andra välkända kognitiva tester.

I studien ingick 67 friska deltagare i åldrarna 19–87 år, vilka delades upp i två åldersgrupper. En korrelationsanalys mellan resultat på simulatortestet och två traditionella kognitiva test (TMT och UFOV) genomfördes. Vidare undersöktes även den interna konsistensen av simulatorns del tester samt genomfördes en multipel regressionsanalys. Resultaten påvisade god intern konsistens (α = .83). Det framkom signifikanta och måttliga korrelationer (p < .001, rs > .50) gällande reaktionstider för alla deltester och UFOV 3, och även i de flesta fall med TMT A. Analyserna på visade också signifikanta skillnader (p < .001) och stora effektstorlekar (r > .60) mellan åldersgrupperna på alla tester gällande reaktionstider och för position/placering. Med anledning av de positiva resultaten för kriterievaliditet, särskilt för TMT A och UFOV 3, framkommer en tydlig potential för simulatorn att användas som ett komplement i kognitiva bedömningar för körkortslämplighet. För framtida bruk behövs dock kliniska studier för att ytterligare undersöka dess användbarhet för patienter med kognitiva nedsättningar.

A simulator driving test (SDT) and two neuropsychological tests, the Useful Field of View (UFOV) test and the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA) were evaluated with regard to validity for fitness to drive on 51 young clients diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 33 of whom also had autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and 38 adolescents without a neurodevelopmental diagnosis. The results show generally much greater variability and significantly poorer performance in the SDT and the TOVA for clients with ADHD/ASD compared with the control group. The SDT results were strongly intratest correlated, but had no interest correlation with either the UFOV test or the TOVA. The greater variability among clients with ADHD/ASD suggests greater effort and susceptibility to motivational issues and decline in sustained attention over several tests. In conclusion, the SDT is sensitive and has good face validity, and the TOVA is sensitive to neuropsychological aspects of safe driving. The SDT and the TOVA thus complement each other, and discrepancy between test scores calls for special consideration. © 2021 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Drivers with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have been considered to have a 3–4 times higher crash risk than control drivers without ADHD. A core issue which has not been properly dealt with is the role of comorbid diagnoses which frequently appear together with ADHD, especially Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD), sometimes generically referred to as “conduct problems”. The increased crash risk associated with ADHD diagnosis presented in the literature is often based on studies performed with participants with more than one diagnosis. This means that the comorbidity may be high and, consequently, the effect of ADHD on traffic safety may be overestimated. This has been shown in a meta-analysis presenting a relative risk of 1.30 instead.

The existing research on drivers with ADHD is unsatisfying when it comes to methodology, specifically concerning inclusion and exclusion criteria for participants. This has led to a misunderstanding of the driving ability for people with ADHD, which has been cited and spread in the literature for two decades. People with ADHD diagnosis might suffer from this misinterpretation and the specific effects of ADHD on driving behavior remain unclear. There is a potential for better control for confounding factors, for exposure (mileage) and for comorbidity, especially CD and ODD.

The aim of this study was to examine differences in driving behavior between experienced drivers with and without ADHD, respectively.

The purpose of the pre-study was to investigate the conditions for simulator-based training of emergency driving and to initiate user-centered development of simulators for emergency driving. With the help of a close cooperation with emergency vehicle operators and the Traffic Safety Unit, the project aims to identify the need to be able to safely train emergency driving and to investigate how training of emergency driving in driving simulators can prevent incidents and accidents.

An existing emergency scenario developed by VTI has been used to, together with staff from various emergency actors, identify wishes and requirements for different types of use. This R&D-oriented study has been supplemented with the development of simulator methodology. All results will form the basis for the development of simulation tools for training of emergency driving.

The risks experienced by emergency drivers are strongly linked to the interaction with other road users, but also to their own knowledge of speeds, road conditions and darkness. The results point to the need for training emergency drivers in; how to make themselves visible and to show their intentions, understanding the effects of speed choices, road condition and darkness, on-road overtaking, red light driving, and also the need for training of surrounding traffic on how to behave, preferably during driver's license training.

Emergency vehicles (EVs) are at high risk of accidents during emergency driving. To make use of countermeasures to mitigate these risks, it is important to understand under what circumstances EV-related accidents occur. The common risk factors for EV-related accidents were examined through a systematic literature review. A total of 22 articles were examined for risk factors associated with EV-related accidents. The most reported risk factors were, in order of frequency, intersections, daytime, dry roads, clear weather, urban roads, traffic signals, and angular collisions. The articles were also reviewed for suggested countermeasures to mitigate the risk factors. The most commonly suggested countermeasures were driver training for EV operators, educating the public, exercising caution at intersections, wearing a seatbelt, and intelligent vehicle technologies. Cooperative intelligent transport systems (C-ITSs) have the potential to mitigate the risks of EV-related accidents. Therefore, three C-ITS services were investigated: EV approaching, EV preemption, and geofencing. They could all be used to inform, warn, or control aspects of driving. Each suggested service has the potential to decrease risk factors for EV-related accidents. The current literature review provides guidance on under what circumstance and in what form C-ITSs could be beneficial to prevent EV-related accidents. Further research is needed to examine behavior when drivers are introduced to C-ITSs.

A pilot project with three substudies (a literature survey, a workshop, and a field experiment at test track) is reported. The intent is to develop realistic and prototypical driving scenarios with associated patient-care tasks, for use in ambulance-simulator studies and training of ambulance personnel, in a future project. The goals were to survey the current knowledge and to collect relevant data on vehicle dynamics and behaviour during simulated emergency scenarios. Prior research has foremost studied the quality of CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) during transport and shown that it is difficult to perform high-quality CPR depending on the transport procedure, vehicle type, and the design of the care space. From the workshop, care interventions were chosen for the subsequent field experiment; based on frequency and difficulty. Factors that affect the care interventions during transport were categorised as motion related, design related, road surface status, and cooperation. The field experiment at a test track showed that workload and difficulty in performing the care interventions were rated higher when the transport entailed more and faster speed changes and turns. Motion-related factors was the highest-rated category with regard to effect on care interventions.