We evaluate the N-shaped environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) using panel quantile regression analysis. We investigate the relationship between CO2 emissions and GDP per capita for 74 countries over the period of 1994–2012. We include additional explanatory variables, such as renewable energy consumption, technological development, trade, and institutional quality. We find evidence for the N-shaped EKC in all income groups, except for the upper-middle-income countries. Heterogeneous characteristics are, however, observed over the N-shaped EKC. Finally, we find a negative relationship between renewable energy consumption and CO2 emissions, which highlights the importance of promoting greener energy in order to combat global warming.

This thesis aims to explore, analyze, and develop knowledge that leads to an understanding of identifying the key actors and their symbiotic relationships and dependencies in transforming the energy and transportation system from fossil-based to renewable and fossil fuel-powered vehicles to electric. 

The research was explorative and categorized into two studies. The Study – I focuses on the technological development that leads toward transforming from the old fossil-based analog electricity generation and distribution system to the new digitalized renewable system. This study further explores the impact of these disruptive technologies on the market and society, and the challenges hindering the implementation and adoption of the new energy system. Study – II focuses on developing new knowledge and understanding by integrating technological, political, societal, and economic aspects into one model and named it a 'multidimensional readiness index model.' This model can serve as an analytical tool and provide a broader perspective for exploring, analyzing, evaluating, and determining the countries' positions in transforming the transformation system. The model has been applied to eight countries, two from Asia (China and India) and Australia and five from Europe (Germany, Norway, Sweden, Slovenia, and the UK). The kappa synthesizes the exploration of the papers. Additionally, the system approach is applied to explore and understand the symbiotic relationship in the new ecosystem among the key actors and stakeholders and their significant role in transforming the transportation system from fossil-based to electric. 

The main conclusion is that the countries with a higher symbiotic relationship among the key actors achieved a higher level of readiness in transforming the transportation system. In contrast, other countries with a low symbiotic relationship among the key actors are slowly catching up or even far behind in transforming the transportation system towards electrification.

To investigate the reasons for shifting from the old to the new energy system, the impact of this disruptive technology on energy providing firms, the demand for the new business model and the approach of the new business model in terms of creating and capturing values published peer-reviewed articles, and international energy agency reports have been reviewed. This paper encourages energy providing firms to redesign business models for commercializing new energy distribution system and to offer new services to the energy consumers for their future survival in the new trends of the energy market. These services include integrating with renewable energy sources, electric vehicle services, and demand response services to create more value for the consumers and in return gains more profit for each actor.

The services provided through integration of renewable energy with smart grid and the electric vehicle will empower consumers involvement in the electricity system which will give them more control over electricity. CO₂ production will be reduced, helping to create a clean environment and will enable operators to improve grid security and network stability. Finally, demand response services will provide multiple electricity package options to the consumers in which they can select an appropriate package according to their need which will give them more control over their electricity bill. System operators can optimize their grid operations to provide better power quality, and service providers can increase their income by offering additional services.

The main objective of this paper is to develop a readiness index model that can serve as an analytical tool for exploring the achievements of electrification of transportation systems. We have applied this readiness index model to evaluate the readiness positioning of China, Norway, and Sweden towards transport electrification. We have chosen these three countries as they represent diversity among countries that are in the process of adopting electrified transport system solutions. Our developed readiness index model has four key dimensions, technological readiness, political readiness, societal readiness, and economic readiness. The embeddedness of all four dimensions in one model provides a multi-perspective way of analyzing and evaluating the readiness levels of countries moving towards transforming the transportation system. Therefore, we named the model a “multidimensional readiness index.”

The electric road system is an emerging concept in this modern era. The advancement of technology has made it possible to give this concept a real shape (electric road system). However, the energy provided to the electric roads is still produced by non-renewable energy sources, which are completely unhealthy and harmful for society. Furthermore, the traditional grid is not suited to integrate with decentralized/localized energy generation and distribution systems. It is an ineffectual and environmentally extravagant system. Therefore, the preliminary contribution of this research is to introduce a decentralized/localized energy generation system based on renewable energy sources and energy distribution to electric roads through the emerging technology of microgrid and smart grid systems, which have the capability to integrate with renewable energy sources easily. Thus, producing electricity with renewable energy sources is environmentally friendly, less expensive, and available without charges. However, each source of energy has some environmental impacts and cost differences. A brief description of the environmental and cost impact of renewable energy sources (wind, solar) is also presented.

In September 2021, the Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) was commissioned by the government to "contribute to the knowledge building regarding a fast, smart and socio-economically efficient electrification of the transport sector". VTI produces separate reports that correspond to different issues in the government commission. This report describes the costs for different actors and the socio-economic effects of electrification with different technologies, as well as existing financing issues and possible business models.

Sweden has the ambition to be a pioneering country that can show the potential of electrification of the transport sector, as well as spread innovation and technological development that can accelerate electrification globally. The transition to an electrified transport system requires behavioral change, innovation, and infrastructure investments on a large scale.

The road sector accounts for almost 95 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions generated by domestic transport in Sweden. The potential to electrify large parts of the road transports already exists today. Electrification of the road sector can make renewable liquid and gaseous fuels available to segments where electrification is more difficult to implement, such as work machines, shipping, and aviation. Availability of low emission fuels for these segments is crucial to achieve net zero emissions by 2045. It may therefore be cost-effective to accelerate electrification of the road sector. In 2021, 45 percent of the registered passenger cars in Sweden that year were fully electric or plug in hybrids. The growth in demand is predicted to increase rapidly.

A rapid increase in electric vehicles places high demands on the availability of sufficient charging infrastructure and capacity in the electricity networks to meet the demand for energy supply. Electric vehicles and charging infrastructure are associated with large network effects that justify policy instruments to enable a high, and socio-economically efficient, transitioning towards an electrified transport sector. The report discusses several of the instruments within the EU and in Sweden that contribute to accelerating electrification. The increase in ambition presented by the European Commission in the climate legislation package Fit for 55 can greatly impact on the incentives for companies and consumers to switch to electrified vehicles. The package contains various proposals that signal a long-term price of greenhouse gas emissions that increases over time. How the proposals affect the effectiveness of Sweden's national instruments, and how they should be adjusted or complemented, needs to be further analyzed. 

This paper discusses principles for identifying and appraising the impact on GHG (green house gases) emissions from electrifying transportation. We are primarily interested in the road-to-rail case, but the principles apply to other cases as well, both inside and outside the transportation sector. The underlying motive for the paper is an ongoing debate regarding how and to what extent investments in rail infrastructure influences GHG emissions and how to adequately consider the effects in cost-benefit analyses (CBAs) of such investments. Various approaches have been proposed.

The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) has been commissioned by the Swedish Government to “contribute to the creation of knowledge regarding a rapid, smart and socioeconomically efficient electrification of the transport sector”. This report presents the part of the commission that describes a general analysis of the interaction between the energy system and the transport system, what obstacles there are and what solutions can contribute to increased electrification of transport. This part of the assignment includes good examples from other countries. 

Transport and energy have always been closely linked sectors. What is changing now, is not only the connection between the sectors, but also their nature; while the transport sector has historically mainly consumed oil products, global climate measures will drive the transport sector towards a stronger link to electricity. Therefore, the transition from oil-based transport to electricity-based transport is as much about sector changing within the energy sector as between energy and transport sectors. To handle this transition requires a conversion of both systems. The report describes the implications of the transport sector’s change on the energy system and the roles of various actors in the change. In addition, good examples from four other countries – China, the USA, Norway and the Netherlands – are highlighted. When transitioning, there are some policy aspects that are important to take into account, such as technology and behavior change, changes in the sectors and overlapping political goals.

Batteries is one of the main systems of electric vehicle. Batteries determine the total performance and define the capabilities of the electric vehicle regardless it is a passenger vehicle or heavy truck. Batteries are also determining the total price of the electric vehicle to large extend. In this report we are focusing on the technology development in historic perspective of the last 15 years in China. We see that the lithium-ion technology is the dominant technology, but we also see new emerging battery technologies that might be the game changer for the performance of electric vehicles. We demonstrate the dynamics of main battery technologies, LFP (lithium iron manganese, LiFeO4, battery cell) battery and NMC (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide battery cell) battery, the distribution of installed volumes between LFP and NMC in the Chinese market.

The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) has been commissioned by the Swedish Government to “contribute to the creation of knowledge regarding a fast, smart and socioeconomically efficient electrification of the transport sector”. This report presents the part of the commission that describes how digitalization, including the importance of European Data Spaces, connectivity, and innovative solutions, can further accelerate and streamline electrification in the field of transport. 

The electrified transport system can be described as an interconnection of three infrastructures, where the digital infrastructure interconnects the transport and energy infrastructures, via connectivity. In addition, there is a fourth infrastructure, the legal infrastructure, that sets the legal conditions for data sharing. 

Dialogues and discussions have been held with various actors within government and municipality with knowledge in transport, energy and digital infrastructure as well as with the trade and industry, to understand the barriers that exist for accelerating the electrification of transports. 

Most of the consulted actors have pointed out similar difficulties regarding electrification of transport, such as uncertainties linked to investments and time for charging. Collaboration between different actors is required, which in turn mainly concerns data sharing. Digital information across sector boundaries is a prerequisite for creating innovative solutions that can contribute to creating added value for electrified transport, but sharing data is a major barrier. The lack of digital and technical competence and resources as well as concerns about IT security and liability issues are some of the barriers that exist for sharing data. Legal frameworks, and standardized ways of data sharing will therefore be an important piece of the puzzle. The report also describes the European Data Spaces, which are potential enablers for data sharing as they are cross-border both between sectors and EU borders and include large digital systems as well as the involvement of many actors.

The government has commissioned the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) to “contribute to the building of knowledge around a fast, smart and economically efficient electrification of the transport sector”. This report focusses on the part of the mission that deals with conducting pilot projects and developing models for how data, in practice, can be made available, shared and utilized in the best way to optimize planning, development, operation for charging infrastructure and business models. 

The report provides a description of existing technologies for charging electric vehicles, important user perspectives, and how business models and systems for charging infrastructure can be modelled. 

The report focuses on data sharing and describes how actors today share data and what difficulties they see with data sharing. This includes, among other things, data availability, sharing and utilization, as well as how the actors want it to work going forward. A major challenge concerns data availability, where actors partly see problems with getting access to data and partly are hesitant to want to share their own data. Often, it is about privacy issues and regulation according to the GDPR. 

The importance of a well-functioning collaboration between the energy and transport sectors has been highlighted in previous reports from this assignment. 

The importance of digitalization and digital infrastructure that connects these sectors is particularly emphasized in this work. Digitalization is needed to streamline planning, development and operation of the infrastructure that an electrified transport system requires. The modeling done in this part of the assignment deals with transport modeling and energy modeling as well as development to make the models interact.

Unprecedented investments in clean energy technology are required for a net-zero carbon energy system before temperatures breach the Paris Agreement goals. By performing a Monte-Carlo Analysis with the detailed ETSAP-TIAM Integrated Assessment Model and by generating 4000 scenarios of the world's energy system, climate and economy, we find that the uncertainty surrounding technology costs, resource potentials, climate sensitivity and the level of decoupling between energy demands and economic growth influence the efficiency of climate policies and accentuate investment risks in clean energy technologies. Contrary to other studies relying on exploring the uncertainty space via model intercomparison, we find that the CO2 emissions and CO2 prices vary convexly and nonlinearly with the discount rate and climate sensitivity over time. Accounting for this uncertainty is important for designing climate policies and carbon prices to accelerate the transition. In 70% of the scenarios, a 1.5 °C temperature overshoot was within this decade, calling for immediate policy action. Delaying this action by ten years may result in 2 °C mitigation costs being similar to those required to reach the 1.5 °C target if started today, with an immediate peak in emissions, a larger uncertainty in the medium-term horizon and a higher effort for net-zero emissions.

Visions of smart energy systems are increasingly influencing energy systems around the world. Many visions entail ideas of more efficient versions of existing large-scale energy systems, where smart grids serve to balance energy consumption and demand over large areas. At the other end of the spectrum are visions of smart energy places that represent a challenge to dominant, large-scale energy systems, based on smart microgrids that facilitate the self-sufficiency of local, decentralized energy systems. Whereas smart energy places do not necessarily aim to create completely isolated microgrids, they generally aim to strengthen the connection between energy consumption and production within delimited spaces. The aim of this article is to better understand how visions of smart energy places are translated into sociomaterial configurations. Smart Grid Gotland and Climate-Smart Hyllie were two Swedish initiatives where notions of place were central to the attempts to reconfigure the local energy system. Several solutions proposed within these smart energy places struggled because of regulatory lock-in to the existing spatial arrangements of the electricity market. There was a mismatch between the larger spatial scales institutionalized in the Swedish electricity market and the smaller scales introduced in these smart energy places. The conflicting spatial arrangements between electricity market and these initiatives suggest that demonstrations of smart energy places require some degree of protection from market regulations. Without this protection, visions of smart energy places might instead result in incremental changes to existing large-scale energy systems.

This is the report of a part of a government assignment (I2021 / 02212) on how electrification of road transport can be accelerated economically efficient. VTI’s work has consisted of compiling investigations and research. 

The most important conclusions are the following: The expansion of charging infrastructure may need to be accelerated. This should be done by analyzing where an increased supply of charging infrastructure can have a major effect. To enable such acceleration, the expansion of electricity networks may also need to be accelerated. This can be done by increasing the price differentiation of electricity network services and by subsidizing the expansion of electricity networks.

The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) has been commissioned by the Government of Sweden to “contribute to the creation of knowledge regarding a fast, smart and socioeconomically efficient electrification of the transport sector”. This report describes the current state of electrification of shipping and also policy instruments in Sweden, at the international level and in other countries that have been introduced to accelerate the electrification of shipping. VTI produces additional reports that correspond to the other subjects and reporting dates specified in the Government’s commission.

Shipping is electrified to a very small extent, as only about 340 of more than 98 000 ships in December 2021 had some sort of electric propulsion. Since hydrogen and battery propulsion are associated with higher costs, lower energy density (and large energy losses in the case of hydrogen propulsion) as well as requiring more space compared to conventional propulsion, electrification is best suited for ferries and other vessels operating on shorter, fixed routes with many stops.

The majority of the policy instruments at the international level and in Sweden identified in the report are intended to promote investments in both Onshore Power Supply (OPS) as well as battery and hydrogen propulsion. This applies, for example, to environmentally differentiated port and fairway fees, environmental legislation and support for investments and research. The policy instruments in other countries identified in the report in many cases promote the electrification of individual vessels, for example through targeted investment support for retrofitting of and construction of new ships, and through requirements for electric propulsion in the procurement of publicly owned vessels and public transport. Norway is investing significant amounts in a green transition of shipping, combined with future requirements for low- and zero-emission vessels in Norwegian waters.

With the implementation of the European Commission’s ‘Fit for 55’ legislative proposal, the internalization of emission costs may increase, incentivizing investments in the electrification of shipping. The proposal includes taxation of shipping fuel, an emissions trading system for shipping and carbon dioxide-based fuel requirements.

The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) has been commissioned by the Government to “contribute to the creation of knowledge regarding a fast, smart and socioeconomically efficient electrification of the transport sector”. This report presents the results of the investigation on knowledge gaps in key actors concerning the electrification of the transport system and gives suggestions for learning and knowledge exchange. 

This investigation was performed as an interview study. Key actors were identified using a model of the transport systems’ different functions including new functions due to electrification. The study encompasses all relevant electrification technologies and transport modes, with emphasis on road. 

The transformation towards electrified vehicles is characterized by much uncertainty. Most actors in our study speak of an enormous need for knowledge. A significant uncertainty lies in how the new system should be formed and who should be responsible for what. The different sub-systems relevant for electrification are dependent on each other, e.g. vehicles are dependent on adaptations in infrastructure and regulation. Progression in each sub-system takes a different pace which affects progression of the whole system and increases uncertainty for many actors. 

Knowledge gaps exist on different levels. Practical knowledge concerning implementation and usage of the new technology is missing – in other terms, a lack of experience. Sometimes, though, it is all about understanding each other’s sub-systems and roles. Transfer of the most basic knowledge between different sub-systems is needed. 

Collaboration is seen as very important to increase and spread knowledge. It is common to collaborate within projects and by participating in different networks. Dissemination works well amongst those actively taking part in current developments and we can see indications that certain knowledge gaps will be closed given enough time. However, there is a need to spread knowledge wider, especially to smaller, regional actors and the general public. 

If the pace for electrifying the transport system should increase reaching out to a majority is needed. Many actors say that knowledge plays a role in this, but that it is more important to ensure to get infrastructure in place and to address economic issues.

This study has developed and applied a framework to analyse barriers, opportunities, and potential solutions for the diffusion of alternative fuels, here exemplified by liquefied biogas (LBG) for heavy trucks. The study is based on expert and stakeholder interviews in Sweden. Also, the study estimates a cost example of using heavy duty LBG-trucks instead of conventional diesel trucks. The framework is based on two previously published frameworks to categorise barriers, opportunities, and potential solutions and comprises five categories: financial, technical/commercial/physical, policy, public acceptability, and market structure/interaction barriers. Each category considers both the system and actor levels. The results of this study fit the framework's categories well, and the framework is appropriate for analysing the diffusion of liquefied biogas for heavy trucks, and other technologies with similar characteristics. The results further indicate that a network level, in addition to the system and actor levels, could advance our understanding of renewable energy diffusion. The most mentioned opportunities were climate/environmental benefits, potential profitability, and newly introduced policies. The cost estimates show that given current taxes and policies in Sweden, the costs of using LBG-trucks are only marginally higher than those of using conventional diesel trucks. Commonly cited barriers were financial issues, an unstable policy context, lack of infrastructure, and lack of knowledge. Suggested solutions for overcoming barriers were financial incentives, a stable policy context, demonstration projects, and information campaigns. Improved knowledge and working together throughout the biogas value chain, with a palette of renewable energy options, are important for accelerating a sustainable renewable fuel diffusion. Several policy instruments that currently exists in Sweden already target the mentioned barriers. Thus, it is important to continuously evaluate policy instruments to understand if they are effective and efficient, or if anything need to be changed to reach the targets of the policy instrument. © 2021 The Authors

In comparison with current financing mechanisms for renewable energy systems, crowd-funding financing mechanism offers a new potential source of financing with recent use of social media. Crowd-funding financing mechanism can also increases the social supports for renewable energy systems as users and investors turn to be more actively engaged in energy systems. As a new potential source of financing, crowd-funding mechanism has different forms, including donation, lending, equity and product reward approaches. In this paper, discrete choice model was used to explore whether crowd-funding financing with a novel sociotechnical product reward practice, has the attractions for potential customers to pay for a more sustainable milk product with distributed photovoltaic (PV) system. We empirically investigated the reward-base crowd funding with the specific integrated photovoltaic water pumping (PVWP) system in dairy milk production in China. 48 in-depth interviews were adopted for qualitative analysis of determinants of customer milk purchase decision. The ordered probit regression was employed with 357 online surveys to systematically estimate the purchase intention for the online-crowd-funding sustainable milk. Customer behaviours, environmental consciousness, and the individual socio-demographic factors were tested as potential explanatory variables. In the survey and depth interview samples, we found interviewees as potential customers showed strong purchase intentions to the crowd funding dairy milk for noticing milk quality and nutritious improvement, emission reduction and environmental benefits by the integrated PVWP system. In our findings of the regression results, the females, customers with young children or planning to have children were found with higher willing to purchase than other customers for crowd funding the sustainable dairy milk. The familiarity and popularity with online shopping and pre-sale purchase in China made customers more open and active towards pre-pay and crowd-funding mechanism.